Adaptogens: Extraction, active components and mechanisms of action

Introduction

Adaptogens are natural substances (usually herbs or fungi) that help the body resist and adapt to various types of stress , promoting balance (homeostasis) without disrupting normal bodily functions They exert a "normalizing" effect against physical, mental, or environmental stressors, improving stress resistance and reducing fatigue. In this report, we focus on five important adaptogens— ashwagandha , lion's mane , reishi , cordyceps , and rhodiola —detailing how their extracts are obtained, what their main active compounds are, from which part of the plant or fungus they are extracted, and how they work in the body.

Extraction methods: Obtaining an extract involves separating and concentrating the bioactive compounds from the raw material (root, leaves, or fungus) using solvents or other techniques. The choice of method is crucial, as it influences the yield and composition of the extract. Traditional methods exist, such as maceration , infusion , or Soxhlet extraction with solvents, which usually use water or alcohol to dissolve the desired phytochemicals. For example, maceration involves soaking the ground plant in a solvent for an extended period, allowing the active ingredients to be gradually extracted at room temperature. Other traditional methods include decoction (boiling the plant in water) or tincture (soaking in alcohol). In recent years, more efficient non-conventional methods have been developed, such as ultrasound- or microwave- assisted extraction, and supercritical fluid extraction (CO₂) , which can increase the efficiency and selectivity of the extraction. For example, supercritical CO₂ extraction (at high pressure and moderate temperature) allows for obtaining purer extracts, especially of non-polar compounds, without leaving residues of toxic solvents. In general, aqueous solvents (hot water) extract polar compounds such as polysaccharides and glycosides well, while alcoholic solvents (ethanol, methanol) additionally extract less polar compounds such as some terpenes and phenols , offering a broader spectrum of bioactive substances. Below, for each adaptogen requested, are presented its particularities in terms of the part used, typical extraction methods, main active compounds and mechanisms of action.

Ashwagandha ( Withania somnifera )

Part used and extraction: Ashwagandha, known as “Indian ginseng”, is a plant of the Solanaceae family whose roots are the part most traditionally used for their medicinal properties, although the leaves also contain valuable phytochemicals Ashwagandha extracts are commonly obtained from dried and ground roots. Typical extraction methods include hydroalcoholic solvents (mixtures of water and ethanol) to ensure the capture of both polar and nonpolar compounds. For example, reflux or Soxhlet extractions with ethanol-water, or prolonged alcoholic macerations, can be used to concentrate the steroidal lactones called withanolides. In the industry there are standardized extracts – such as the well-known KSM-66 – that are produced using aqueous processes and solvent beds, sometimes with modern techniques (ultrasound, microwaves) that improve the extraction efficiency of the active ingredients without degrading them by excessive heat. In summary, ashwagandha is usually presented as a concentrated root extract , typically standardized to contain a defined percentage of withanolides (e.g., 5% withanolides).

Active compounds: The most characteristic bioactive compounds of ashwagandha are the withanolides , a group of steroidal lactones unique to this plant Dozens of withanolides have been identified, including withaferin A , withanolide A , withanolide D , withanone , among others, present in different parts of the plant The roots contain a wide range: withanolide A (~5.4 mg/g), withaferin A (~2.3 mg/g) and several glycosides called withanosides The leaves also provide withaferin A and other withanolides in significant concentrations. In addition to withanolides, ashwagandha contains alkaloids (such as somniferine), flavonoids , and phenols with antioxidant activity. However, withanolides are considered its main adaptogenic markers. These molecules confer anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-stress, and neuroprotective effects to the plant, among others. In fact, ashwagandha is usually standardized to total withanolides (for example, a high-potency extract may contain ~5% withanolides).

Mechanism of action: Ashwagandha is a versatile adaptogen with multiple scientifically supported beneficial effects. In terms of stress management, its withanolides help regulate the body's stress response , attenuating hyperactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and reducing elevated levels of cortisol (the stress hormone). Preclinical and clinical studies indicate that ashwagandha supplementation can significantly decrease serum cortisol levels under conditions of chronic stress, which is associated with reduced anxiety and fatigue. Furthermore, certain components of ashwagandha show affinity for GABA neurotransmitter receptors, which would explain its anxiolytic effects and its role in promoting restful sleep. In general, ashwagandha improves stress resilience : individuals who take it often report reduced stress levels, improved mood, and better mental performance under pressure. Furthermore, this plant possesses antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that protect tissues (such as the brain) from stress-induced oxidative damage. It is also attributed with mild energizing and anabolic effects, likely because its compounds support mitochondrial function and reduce adrenal fatigue. Overall, ashwagandha acts as an anti-stress tonic, anxiety reducer , and enhancer of physical and cognitive performance , with a favorable safety profile in human studies.

Lion's mane ( Hericium erinaceus )

Part Used and Extraction: Lion's mane is an edible medicinal mushroom whose white , plume-like fruiting body is the most commonly used part. Its mycelium (the filamentous mass) is also cultivated in liquid fermenters to obtain certain unique compounds. Hericium supplements are typically made from the dried, powdered mushroom, either as a whole powder or as a concentrated extract . Since this mushroom contains both water-soluble (e.g., polysaccharides) and alcohol-soluble (e.g., terpenes) compounds, dual extraction is commonly used: first, a hot aqueous extraction (decoction) to extract polysaccharides (such as β-glucans ), and then an ethanolic extraction to capture less polar compounds such as hericenones and erinazines . This dual approach ensures the full spectrum of active ingredients is obtained. For example, a “dual” extract of lion’s mane might involve boiling the fungus in water to extract immunoactive polysaccharides, precipitating those polysaccharides with ethanol and simultaneously macerate the residue in ethanol to extract the neuroactive terpenoids, then combine the fractions. Alternatively, hydroalcoholic solvents are used in a single step. Ultimately, lion's mane is usually presented as a fruiting body extract (sometimes combined with mycelium extract) standardized for its total polysaccharide content.

Active compounds: Hericium erinaceus is notable for containing unique compounds with neurotrophic activity. Two main groups are the hericenones (A, C, D, etc.), found in the fruiting body, and the erinacins (A–K, etc.), produced in the fungal mycelium. These substances are low-molecular-weight diterpenoids capable of influencing the nervous system. In particular, several erinazines (such as A, B, C, and E) can cross the blood-brain barrier and stimulate the synthesis of nerve growth factor (NGF) in the brain. Hericenones, for their part, also stimulate the secretion of NGF from peripheral nerve cells. Both groups promote neuronal growth and differentiation. Furthermore, lion's mane contains polysaccharides (especially β-glucans) with immunomodulatory and antioxidant effects, as well as other phenolic compounds and sterols that contribute to its biological activity. In summary, the key active principles are: erinacines (neurotrophic, from the mycelium), hericenones (neurotrophic, from the fruiting body) and β-glucans (immunological, present throughout the mushroom).

Mechanism of action: Lion's mane is particularly known for its neuroprotective and nootropic (brain function enhancement) effects. Its diterpene compounds stimulate the production of neurotrophins such as NGF and BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor), which are essential proteins for the survival, growth, and maintenance of neurons. By raising NGF/BDNF levels, neurogenesis (the formation of new neurons) and synaptogenesis (the formation of synapses) are promoted, which can lead to improvements in memory and cognition. Studies in animal models and preliminary human trials suggest that Hericium intake improves cognitive performance, accelerates recovery from peripheral nerve injuries, and may alleviate symptoms of mild depression and anxiety. The mechanism also involves antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties in the nervous system: lion's mane extracts reduce neuroinflammation and oxidative stress in the brain, protecting neurons from apoptotic damage. Additionally, certain erinacines have shown antibiotic activity and the ability to bind to kappa opioid receptors, although the significance of these actions is not fully understood. Overall, lion's mane acts as a neuronal "fertilizer," promoting the regeneration and plasticity of nerve tissue, which could explain its beneficial effects on cognitive function and mental well-being (its potential in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's is being investigated). Finally, its β-glucans provide a general immunomodulatory effect (as occurs with many medicinal mushrooms), supporting the body's defenses. All of the above positions Hericium erinaceus as an adaptogen focused on brain and nervous system health.

Reishi ( Ganoderma lucidum )

Parts Used and Extraction: Reishi, also called "lingzhi" or the mushroom of immortality, is a basidiomycete fungus whose fruiting body (the mushroom with a flattened, glossy cap) is the part traditionally used. Its spores (the microscopic seeds of the fungus) and occasionally the cultivated mycelium are also used. Because wild reishi is rare, its fruiting bodies are now cultivated on a large scale in sawdust or wood, as well as the mycelium in liquid fermentation. To obtain potent extracts, the fruiting body is usually dried and pulverized , and then extracted with solvents. The most common method is prolonged aqueous decoction (boiling the fungus) to extract its rich water-soluble polysaccharides. After extraction in hot water, it is typical to precipitate the polysaccharides by adding ethanol to the aqueous extract, since many β-glucans precipitate in alcohol, allowing their purification. On the other hand, to obtain other compounds not extracted by water (such as triterpenes), an ethanolic extraction of the material is performed. Many commercial reishi supplements are double extracts (water + alcohol) to ensure the content of both β-glucans (hydrophilic polysaccharides) and triterpenoids (more hydrophobic compounds). Additionally, modern technologies such as supercritical CO₂ extraction have been applied to reishi to obtain triterpene-rich fractions without using traditional organic solvents. Reishi products on the market range from raw mushroom powder (less bioavailable due to its indigestible chitin content) to highly concentrated extracts standardized to, for example, >30% polysaccharides or specific percentages of triterpenes. Ultimately, reishi extraction typically involves hot water (for polysaccharides) and often ethanol (for triterpenes), using the fruiting body as the primary raw material.

Active compounds: Reishi contains numerous phytochemicals, but its three main classes of bioactive constituents are: (1) polysaccharides , (2) triterpenes , and (3) peptides/glycoproteins Polysaccharides are notable for their abundance and medicinal potency – in particular β-glucans (glucose polysaccharides with β-1,3 and β-1,6 linkages) found in the cell wall of the fungus Various polysaccharides have been isolated from reishi (e.g., ganoderans A, B, C), derived from the fruiting body, mycelium, and spores. These polysaccharides are heterogeneous, composed mainly of glucose monomers, but also mannose, galactose, xylose, and fucose in varying proportions. The triterpenes in reishi, for their part, are molecules derived from lanosterol, known as ganoderic acids (and lucidenic acids, among others). Dozens of triterpenes specific to G. lucidum have been identified, such as ganoderic acid A , B , C , lucidenate , etc., responsible for the characteristic bitter taste of reishi. These triterpenoids are concentrated in the fruiting body and spores. The triterpene and polysaccharide content can vary greatly depending on the extract; for example, in analyses of 11 commercial reishi products, triterpenes ranged from 0% to ~7.8%, and polysaccharides from ~1.1% to 5.8%, indicating variations due to cultivation and extraction methods. In addition, reishi provides sterols (such as ergosterol, a precursor of vitamin D₂), phenols , nucleotides (adenosine), and other compounds with biological activity. It also contains proteins/peptidoglycans such as LZ-8 with immunomodulatory effects. In summary, the emblematic active ingredients of reishi are β-glucans (immunostimulating polysaccharides) and ganoderic acids (hepatoprotective, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory triterpenes), supported by a mixture of other phytonutrients.

Mechanism of action: Reishi is considered an excellent immune modulator . Its polysaccharides (especially β-glucans) stimulate the innate immune system , activating macrophages, NK cells, and other immune cells. These polysaccharides do not attack pathogens directly, but instead activate receptors on immune cells (such as Dectin-1 or Toll-like receptors), triggering the release of cytokines and a more vigorous immune response against infections and tumor cells. Abundant preclinical evidence shows that polysaccharide-rich extracts of reishi inhibit tumor growth in animal models by enhancing T and NK lymphocyte activity and promoting cancer cell apoptosis. Additionally, the triterpenes in reishi contribute anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects: some ganoderic acids have been observed to inhibit inflammatory pathways (e.g., reducing NF-κB and COX-2) and decrease oxidative stress in immune cells, helping to regulate a balanced immune response. This explains the traditional uses of reishi for allergic or autoimmune conditions (where a calming effect on the overactive immune system is sought). In terms of adaptogenicity, reishi is known in Eastern medicine for reducing stress, improving sleep, and increasing vitality . While human research is limited in this area, it is postulated that reishi may exert a mild calming effect (which is why it is used for insomnia in the Chinese pharmacopoeia), possibly through modulation of the HPA axis and attenuation of the excessive release of adrenaline and cortisol in stressful situations. Furthermore, thanks to its antioxidants, reishi protects key organs (liver, kidneys) from chronic oxidative damage associated with stress and aging. In summary, the effects of reishi can be summarized as stimulating the immune system when it is low (immunostimulatory effect in infections or cancer) but also calming excessive reactions (anti-inflammatory effect in allergies or chronic stress), reflecting its bidirectional adaptogenic role. For this reason, it is credited with promoting longevity and the body's overall resistance (hence its nickname, the "mushroom of immortality").

Cordyceps ( Cordyceps sinensis / C. militaris )

Part Used and Extraction: Cordyceps is a genus of endoparasitic fungi famous for the species Cordyceps sinensis (now Ophiocordyceps sinensis ), which parasitizes caterpillars in the highlands of Tibet. Traditionally, the entire fungus emerging from the caterpillar (known as “winterworm, summergrass”) was harvested for medicinal uses. This wild form is extremely expensive and scarce, so most products today use cultivated forms . Two main sources are: (1) the fungus Cordyceps militaris , a similar species that is easily cultivated on plant substrates and produces orange fruiting bodies rich in active compounds; and (2) the mycelium of C. sinensis cultivated in liquid bioreactors (sometimes designated CS-4 in Chinese literature). To prepare extracts, either the dried fruiting body (in the case of C. militaris ) or the freeze-dried mycelial biomass is used. Extraction is usually carried out with hot water or mild hydroalcoholic solvents , since many components of cordyceps are water-soluble (nucleosides, polysaccharides). A typical method is prolonged aqueous decoction of the powdered material, thereby extracting compounds such as cordycepin and adenosine (both quite polar) along with polysaccharides. The aqueous phase can then be concentrated and dried to obtain a pure extract. Alternatively, 50–70% ethanol is used to extract both water-soluble nucleosides and certain less polar metabolites (e.g., some sterols and polyphenols present). To optimize polysaccharide extraction, techniques such as enzyme-assisted extraction and pressurized liquid extraction have been investigated, but commercially aqueous extraction remains the most widely used due to its simplicity and because it provides a high yield (~25–30%) of extract rich in bioactive polysaccharides. In some cases, after aqueous extraction, the polysaccharides are precipitated with ethanol (similar to the process used with reishi). In summary, cordyceps is generally marketed as a standardized extract —for example, with a guaranteed content of cordycepin (an active nucleoside) and total polysaccharides . The raw material can be the fruiting body of cultivated C. militaris or the mycelium of C. sinensis , as the composition of both is comparable in certain key compounds.

Active compounds: Cordyceps contains a variety of unique metabolites. The best known is cordycepin , chemically 3'-deoxyadenosine , a nucleoside analogue of adenosine. Interestingly, cordycepin was initially isolated from C. militaris in 1950 and is practically nonexistent in wild Cordyceps (natural C. sinensis) except in trace amounts – this explains why C. militaris , which produces abundant cordycepin, is now preferred for cultivation. Cordycepin is considered an indicator compound due to its multiple pharmacological activities (antitumor, immunomodulatory, etc.). Along with cordyceps, it provides adenosine and other modified nucleosides (2'-deoxyadenosine, N6-methyladenosine) that can influence cellular bioenergetics and purinergic signaling. Furthermore, this fungus is rich in polysaccharides (mainly β-glucans similar to those of other fungi) that contribute to immune system modulation. Unique cyclic peptides (such as cordymin), unusual dipeptides , and polyketide derivatives have also been identified, some with antioxidant and hormonal activity. Cordyceps also provides sterols (e.g., ergosterol, ergosterol peroxide) and fatty acids. Among the free amino acids , γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) , found in the mycelium, stands out and may contribute to its mild sedative effect. Regarding vitamins and minerals, it is a source of vitamin B12 in small amounts. In summary, the outstanding active ingredients of Cordyceps are: cordycepin (a central adaptogenic nucleoside), adenosine (and other bioactive nucleosides), polysaccharides (immunomodulators), and minor compounds such as sterols and peptides that complement its action. .

Mechanism of action: Cordyceps is valued as an energizer and restorative in traditional Chinese medicine, and modern science has begun to elucidate its effects. One of its main mechanisms is its influence on cellular energy metabolism . Cordycepin, being an analog of adenosine, can be incorporated into metabolic pathways and affect the availability of ATP , the basic energy molecule. Studies indicate that Cordyceps improves oxygen utilization and ATP synthesis in tissues, which would explain its anti-fatigue and pro-endurance effect observed in animal models (improved exercise resistance). In humans, some small trials suggest that Cordyceps supplementation slightly increases exercise tolerance and reduces the sensation of fatigue, although more evidence is needed. Hormonally, Cordyceps appears to modulate the HPA axis and corticosteroid production; in situations of prolonged stress, it may protect the adrenal glands from exhaustion by balancing the cortisol response (although this adaptogenic effect is not as well documented as in Rhodiola or ashwagandha). A notable area of ​​application is its immunomodulatory action : Cordyceps can stimulate immune function (promoting the production of cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α, and increasing phagocytosis by macrophages). , such as attenuating excessive inflammatory responses (e.g., suppressing the release of pro-inflammatory mediators under endotoxic stimulation) This dual “bi-directional” effect on the immune system has been observed: small doses promote immune surveillance against infections and tumor cells, while anti-inflammatory properties useful in diseases such as asthma or arthritis have also been reported (where Cordyceps reduced IgE levels and Th2 cytokines in experimental models). On the other hand, Cordyceps exhibits antioxidant activity , protecting vital organs: in studies with mice exposed to high altitude (hypoxia), Cordyceps increased antioxidant enzymes and improved tolerance to oxygen deprivation. Cordycepin has been investigated for its antitumor properties: it induces apoptosis in cancer cells and can inhibit proliferation pathways (mTOR, Wnt) by activating adenosine A3 receptors on the cell membrane This makes it promising as an adjuvant in cancer, with very positive preclinical trials (it inhibits the growth of leukemic cell lines, melanoma, colon cancer, etc.). Finally, Cordyceps is renowned for its potential effects on kidney and lung health : it has traditionally been used to strengthen kidneys and alleviate respiratory ailments. Modern studies support the claim that Cordyceps extracts improve kidney function in patients with mild kidney failure and increase lung capacity in people with mild asthma, likely due to the combination of its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and energizing effects on these organs. In conclusion, Cordyceps acts as a comprehensive adaptogen that revitalizes the body , increasing energy and stamina, while fine-tuning the immune system to respond appropriately (neither overly nor underactive). This justifies its historical use in combating fatigue, convalescence, and age-related decline in vigor.

Rhodiola ( Rhodiola rosea )

Part Used and Extraction: Rhodiola, known as “golden root” or “Arctic root,” is a succulent perennial plant whose adaptogenic properties reside in its root or rhizome . After harvesting (generally from high-altitude plants in Siberia, Scandinavia, or the Himalayas), the rhizomes are dried and cut into pieces. Conventional extraction of Rhodiola is carried out with hydroalcoholic solvents at a controlled temperature, since the main compounds (rosavins and salidroside) are glycosidic in nature and are readily extracted in water-ethanol mixtures. In fact, the pharmacopoeia indicates that R. rosea extracts should be concentrated and standardized. Typically, ~70% ethanol is used in a percolation or reflux process, then the solvent is evaporated to obtain a dry extract rich in active ingredients. Commercial Rhodiola extracts are usually standardized to a minimum content of 3% total rosavins and 0.8–1% salidroside , reflecting the approximately 3:1 ratio of these compounds in the dried root This standardization ensures potency and allows for consistent use in clinical trials. For example, the SHR-5 extract, used in several Russian and Scandinavian studies, is prepared with aqueous ethanol and adjusted to that concentration of markers. Rhodiola is commercially available as a standardized extract in capsules/tablets, as a liquid tincture (liquid alcoholic extract), or even as a whole-root tea, although dosage control is better with standardized extracts.

Active compounds: The adaptogenic activity of Rhodiola rosea is primarily attributed to two types of phenolic compounds: rosavins and salidroside . Rosavins comprise three cinnamic alcohol glycosides unique to R. rosea : rosavin , rosarin , and rosin. These are not found in other Rhodiola species, so they serve as botanical markers of authenticity. Among these, rosavin is predominant. Salidroside (also called rhodioloside) is a tyrosol glucoside present in R. rosea and other species of the genus; in R. rosea it is usually found in lower concentrations than rosavins, but it is very important pharmacologically due to its antioxidant and neuroprotective effects. The dried root typically contains ~1% salidroside and ~3% rosavins, a proportion reflected in standardized extracts. In addition to these, Rhodiola contains other compounds: tyrosol (the free aglycone of salidroside), flavonoids (e.g., rhodiolin, rhodonin), tannins, and small amounts of essential oils. It is worth noting that some related species (such as R. crenulata ) lack rosavins but contain salidroside, which alters their activity profile. In R. rosea , the synergy between rosavins and salidroside appears to be important: rosavins are considered the main adaptogenic compounds that "normalize" the stress response, while salidroside also contributes antioxidant, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective effects. Other noteworthy components include pectins and polysaccharides (with potential mild immunomodulatory effects) and organic acids (such as gallic acid). However, for quality marking purposes, the focus is on rosavin(s) and salidroside content as indicators of potency.

Mechanism of action: Rhodiola is one of the most studied adaptogens in humans for its anti-stress and ergogenic (performance-enhancing) effects. Its anti-stress action is largely due to its modulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis , the central stress response system. Studies have shown that Rhodiola extracts can reduce excessive cortisol release during stressful events and help maintain more balanced cortisol levels throughout the day. This leads to a faster recovery of homeostasis after an episode of acute stress; in other words, the body returns to normal sooner in the presence of Rhodiola than without it. At the same time, Rhodiola influences the central nervous system by increasing the availability of neurotransmitters related to mood and energy: research suggests that it partially inhibits MAO enzymes that break down monoamines, resulting in higher levels of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine in the brain. This action may explain the mild antidepressant and anxiolytic effects observed with Rhodiola, as well as the improvement in concentration and alertness . In fact, volunteers under work or academic stress who take Rhodiola report improved mood, less mental fatigue, and better cognitive performance under pressure. Another important mechanism is its antioxidant activity : Rhodiola increases cellular antioxidant capacity and reduces oxidative damage induced by chronic stress, thus protecting brain and heart cells. Therefore, studies with athletes have shown that Rhodiola reduces markers of muscle damage and improves cardiopulmonary parameters, presumably by mitigating the oxidative stress of intense exercise. Rhodiola has also been implicated in cardiac protection under stress: in animal models, it reduces stress-induced arrhythmias and improves the efficiency of myocardial oxygen use. Regarding physical performance , while results are mixed, some trials indicate that Rhodiola can increase time to exhaustion in aerobic exercise, possibly by optimizing fatty acid metabolism and reducing lactic acid. Finally, Rhodiola appears to decrease the systemic inflammatory response in situations of prolonged stress, thanks to cortisol reduction and cytokine modulation. In summary, Rhodiola acts on several levels: endocrine (regulating stress hormones), nervous (improving neurotransmission and mental resilience), and cellular (antioxidant/anti-inflammatory), resulting in a marked reduction of symptoms of fatigue, exhaustion, and low mood in people under chronic stress. It is no coincidence that the European Medicines Agency (EMA) recognizes it as "the adaptogen par excellence" specifically indicated for the relief of stress and its manifestations Its effect is usually noticeable quickly: clinical studies have observed improvements in fatigue, attention, and anxiety after just a few days of supplementation with Rhodiola extract. All of this supports Rhodiola rosea's reputation as a comprehensive adaptogen, safely and effectively invigorating mind and body.

Conclusion

Taken together, the reviewed adaptogens share the ability to increase the body's resistance to stress and restore balance, but each achieves this through unique compounds and pathways. Ashwagandha (root) provides withanolides that reduce cortisol and calm anxiety, while also strengthening immunity and neurological function. Lion's mane (mushroom) offers neurotrophic diterpenes (hericenones/erinacins) that promote neuronal growth and improve cognitive function, along with immunostimulatory polysaccharides. Reishi (mushroom) provides β-glucan polysaccharides and ganoderic triterpenes that modulate the immune system and protect organs from oxidative stress, contributing to longevity and balance. Cordyceps (mushroom) provides cordycepin and nucleosides that boost cellular energy and regulate immunity, combating fatigue and improving overall vitality. Rhodiola (root) contains rosavins and salidroside, which act on the stress and neurotransmitter axis, relieving mental and physical fatigue and elevating mood. All of these are extracted using techniques that maximize their active ingredients—from traditional decoctions to modern methods like supercritical extraction—ensuring standardized extracts that allow for consistent use of their benefits. Current scientific knowledge, supported by preclinical studies and clinical trials, validates many of the properties traditionally attributed to these adaptogens. However, it should be noted that the response may vary depending on the individual, the dosage, and the quality of the extract used. In any case, incorporating high-quality adaptogens, properly extracted and scientifically validated, can be an effective strategy for improving the body's ability to cope with stress, maintaining homeostasis, and promoting overall well-being naturally.

References (APA format)

Benzie, IFF, & Wachtel-Galor, S. (Eds.). (2011). Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. (Chapters 5 and 9: Cordyceps as a medicinal herb; Ganoderma lucidum, a medicinal mushroom).

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Lin, B.-Q., & Li, S.-P. (2011). Cordyceps as an herbal drug. In IFF Benzie & S. Wachtel-Galor (Eds.), Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects (2nd ed., Ch. 5). CRC Press.

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Glossary of terms

• Adaptogen: A natural substance that increases nonspecific resistance to stress and normalizes bodily functions, regardless of the cause of the stress. It helps balance hyper- or hypoactive biological systems, improving homeostasis without significant adverse effects.

• Withanolides: a group of steroidal lactones present in Withania somnifera (ashwagandha). Structurally similar to steroid hormones, they are responsible for many of the plant's medicinal properties (anti-inflammatory, anti-stress, anti-cancer). Examples: withaferin A, withanolide D.

• β-glucans: polysaccharides formed by glucose chains linked mainly by beta-1,3 and beta-1,6 bonds. Abundant in medicinal mushrooms (reishi, lion's mane, cordyceps), they act as immunomodulators by activating immune cells through specific receptors, stimulating the body's defensive response.

• Cordycepin: the characteristic active compound of Cordyceps, chemically 3'-deoxyadenosine. It is a nucleoside analog of adenosine that exhibits remarkable biological activities: antitumor (induces apoptosis in cancer cells), anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and cell-energizing.

• Rosavins: a family of glycosidic phenolic compounds unique to Rhodiola rosea . It includes rosavin, rosarin, and rosin, derivatives of cinnamyl alcohol conjugated with sugar. They are considered the main contributors to Rhodiola's adaptogenic effect, modulating the stress response and neurotransmission.

• Salidroside, also called rhodioloside, is a glycoside of a phenolic alcohol (tyrosol) present in Rhodiola. It contributes to the plant's anti-fatigue and neuroprotective properties. It is an antioxidant, protects neurons and heart cells from stress-induced damage, and is believed to improve mood.

• Triterpenes (triterpenoids): a class of compounds derived from the biosynthesis of six isoprene units (30 carbons). Reishi is abundant in specific triterpenes called ganoderic and lucidenic acids, which have a bitter taste and pharmacological effects (hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative). Other adaptogens such as ashwagandha contain triterpenes in the form of saponins (withanolides).

• Hericenones and erinacins: special diterpenes found in Hericium erinaceus (lion's mane). Hericenones (A, C, D, etc.) come from the fruiting body, while erinacins (A–K, etc.) are isolated from the mycelium. Both stimulate the production of nerve growth factors (such as NGF), promoting neuronal health.

• The HPA (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal) axis is the central endocrine system responsible for the stress response. It involves the release of cortisol (CRH) from the hypothalamus, which stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH, in turn, induces cortisol production in the adrenal glands. An adaptogen can modulate this axis by reducing cortisol overproduction and normalizing feedback, thereby mitigating the harmful effects of chronic stress.

• Homeostasis: the body's state of internal equilibrium, where physiological variables (temperature, pH, hormone levels, etc.) are maintained within optimal ranges. Adaptogens help maintain or restore homeostasis in response to external disturbances (stressors).